This study began with two research questions:

1. What are the opinions of Singapore junior college students and their teachers on the issue of the use of gender-inclusive English? Do these opinions differ according to the sex of the students?
2. What percentage of Singapore junior college students use gender-inclusive English in their writing?

As to the second research questions, almost 50% of students' writing contained at least one instance of explicit gender-inclusive English, and only 27% contained only gender-exclusive forms. There were no significant differences between sexes in their reported and observed use of gender-exclusive/inclusive forms in writing. Thus, a significant percentage of student participants not only accepted the use of gender-exclusive English but actually used it themselves.

The findings of this study clearly demonstrate that gender-inclusive forms are present in the English of some members of an important segment of Singaporeans, as junior college students constitute a major portion of the countryıs future leaders. Further evidence of the incomplete transition to gender-inclusive in Singapore English comes from no less than Singapore Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong who in an address to university students about his party's election manifesto was quoted in a local newspaper as saying:

In Singapore 21, every Singaporean can dream. More than that, he or she can fulfil his or her dream. Not just the 5Cs ... but the non-materialistic aspects of life too! And everyone can be the best he is capable of (Ng 1996: 3) (emphasis added).

Lack of previous studies makes it difficult to speculate on whether the data in this study represent a trend toward greater use of gender-inclusive English in Singapore, but given the trend internationally, at least in Inner Circle countries, it may be reasonable to suggest that gender-inclusive usage has increased and will continue increasing. This is in line with a study of the views and practices of 35 Asian second language educationists, mostly from Southeast Asia, on gender-exclusive/inclusive English (Jacobs, Zhuo, Jocson, Ong, & Austria 1996).

The apparent presence of a ripple effect as a change in Inner Circle countries spreads to an Outer Circle country could be attributed to the power of Inner Circle media and to a tendency of Outer Circle countries to look to the Inner Circle for usage norms. At the same time, explanations should also be sought in socio-economic changes that have occurred in Singapore, e.g., the changes, noted above, in female labour and education patterns.

Future research

Topics which future researchers may wish to investigate include the following.

1. Whether similar changes are taking place in the English of other Outer Circle countries, in the English of Expanding Circle countries, as well as in other languages (Gomard 1995). Toward this end, researchers might wish to replicate the present study.
2. The interaction in bilinguals and multilinguals of related changes in their various languages.
3. Situational variation in use of gender-exclusive/inclusive (Rubin, Greene, and Schnieder 1994).
4. Changes in teaching methods and materials which may affect student use of different language forms.

Language and society

One point that stood out from the interviews of the six students was the seeming rejection, even by those who supported the use of gender-inclusive English, of the Whorfian Hypothesis (Whorf 1956) that language plays a powerful role in shaping thinking. One possible explanation of this is that, as all these students were bi- if not multilingual, they may feel less emotional connection to English, seeing it merely as a vehicle for accomplishing tasks rather than as an integral part of their being. Nevertheless, perhaps the role of language in society is an area that educators might wish to stress more, as research suggests that gender-exclusive language does indeed effect people's thinking (e.g., McConnell & Fazio 1996) and especially as social constructionist views (Halliday 1978) of language gain greater prominence.

In this social constructivist vein, Cheah (1996: 218), speaking about English, stated that, "[B]eyond its instrumental value, the language has also become an important part of being a Singaporean. ... In fact, English is now closely associated with the forging of a new Singaporean identity." Students need to consider the relation between the language choices they make, e.g., using gender-exclusive or gender-inclusive, and the place of females and males in Singapore society.

Freed (1995) noted a trend in the 1990s toward cross-cultural perspectives on the interaction of language and gender. This trend recognizes that gender "is a societal construct that interacts with language as well as with numerous other social, psychological, and political factors in ways that are still poorly understood" (Freed 1995: 9). Perhaps, more could be done to move the broader public toward such a view of language as a living, varying organism and away from one which sees language as fixed and varieties of language as good or bad, portents of success or failure. With such a view, the waves caused by the ripple effects of social and language change will not catch the public unaware.

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